Identifying Parallelism, Chiasm, Inclusio, and Other Literary Features

Recognizing the Patterns of Biblical Writing

Introduction

We have begun moving beyond words and grammar into the larger patterns of structure and flow that give Scripture its unique power. We have already seen how syntax, structure, and discourse analysis help interpreters trace meaning across sentences and paragraphs. Now we focus on the literary artistry of the biblical authors: the use of parallelism, chiasm, inclusio, and other rhetorical features that shape the message of God’s Word.

Far from being random, biblical texts are crafted with care. As already explored earlier in this course, the writers of Scripture used patterns of repetition, mirroring, and framing to emphasize meaning, highlight theology, and guide their readers or listeners. Recognizing these features equips interpreters to hear more clearly what the authors intended and to appreciate the beauty and depth of biblical communication.

This article further explores several major literary devices, explaining how to identify them, and shows why they matter for hermeneutics.

1. Parallelism

1.1 Definition

Parallelism is the repetition or balancing of ideas across lines or phrases. It is especially common in Hebrew poetry, where it serves as the backbone of Psalms, Proverbs, and prophetic oracles.

1.2 Types of Parallelism

• Synonymous Parallelism: The second line restates the first with different words.

  • Example: Psalm 19:1
    “The heavens declare the glory of God;
    the skies proclaim the work of his hands.”

• Antithetic Parallelism: The second line contrasts with the first.

  • Example: Proverbs 10:1
    “A wise son brings joy to his father,
    but a foolish son grief to his mother.”

• Synthetic Parallelism: The second line adds to or completes the first.

  • Example: Psalm 23:1–2
    “The Lord is my shepherd, I lack nothing.
    He makes me lie down in green pastures…”

• Chiastic Parallelism: A mirrored A-B-B′-A′ pattern (see below).

1.3 Hermeneutical Importance

Parallelism helps students:

• Interpret meaning with nuance.

• Avoid over-literalism in poetic lines.

• Recognize emphasis in repeated or contrasting ideas.

2. Chiasm

2.1 Definition

A chiasm (from the Greek letter chi, Χ) is a literary structure in which elements are arranged in a mirrored pattern (A-B-C-B′-A′). The central element often carries the main point.

2.2 Example

Mark 2:27:

• A: “The Sabbath was made for man,

• B: not man for the Sabbath.”

The reversal highlights the true purpose of the Sabbath.

Another extended example is Philippians 2:6–11, where Christ’s humility and exaltation form a chiastic structure centered on His obedience to the point of death.

2.3 Hermeneutical Importance

Chiasms:

• Draw attention to central themes.

• Reveal careful literary design.

• Encourage readers to see meaning not only in words but in structure.

3. Inclusio

3.1 Definition

An inclusio (also called a “bookend”) is a framing device in which a passage begins and ends with similar words or themes, creating a literary envelope.

3.2 Examples

• Matthew’s Gospel begins with the prophecy of “Immanuel, God with us” (Matt. 1:23) and ends with Jesus’ promise, “I am with you always” (Matt. 28:20).

• Psalm 8 begins and ends with: “O Lord, our Lord, how majestic is your name in all the earth!”

3.3 Hermeneutical Importance

Inclusio signals unity of thought and highlights key themes. Recognizing inclusio prevents interpreters from fragmenting the passage and reminds them to read within the frame the author provided.

4. Other Literary Features

4.1 Repetition

Biblical authors often repeat key words or phrases for emphasis. In Isaiah 6:3, the seraphim cry, “Holy, holy, holy,” intensifying God’s holiness.

4.2 Acrostics

Some psalms (e.g., Psalm 119) use acrostic structures, with each line beginning with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. These structures serve mnemonic and poetic functions.

4.3 Rhetorical Questions

Questions are posed not for answers but for emphasis. Example: Romans 8:31 — “If God is for us, who can be against us?”

4.4 Intercalation (“Sandwiching”)

Mark’s Gospel often places one story within another (e.g., Jairus’s daughter and the bleeding woman in Mark 5), creating interpretive connections between the two narratives.

5. Case Studies

5.1 Psalm 1

• Synonymous parallelism: The righteous man delights in the law of the Lord (v. 2).

• Antithetic parallelism: The wicked are not so (v. 4).

• Inclusio: The psalm begins and ends with the fate of the righteous and the wicked, framing the whole.

5.2 The Sermon on the Mount

Matthew 5–7 displays inclusio (“Blessed are the poor in spirit… for theirs is the kingdom of heaven” in 5:3 and 5:10). Repetition of “You have heard… but I say to you” reinforces Jesus’ authority.

5.3 Paul’s Letters

Paul frequently employs rhetorical questions and repetition to emphasize points. Romans 6:1 — “Shall we go on sinning so that grace may increase?” — forces readers to consider absurd conclusions before correcting them.

6. Practical Guidance for Students

6.1 Slow Down and Observe

Look for repeated words, mirrored patterns, and bookending phrases. Literary features are often missed in quick readings.

6.2 Compare Translations

Some English versions obscure patterns; others highlight them. Reading multiple translations can reveal literary features.

6.3 Use Tools

Commentaries, study Bibles, and Bible software can identify literary structures, but students should also practice recognizing them firsthand.

6.4 Ask Why the Structure Matters

Literary features are not mere decoration. They emphasize meaning, highlight theology, and guide interpretation. Always ask: What is the author emphasizing by this structure?

7. Hermeneutical Significance

Recognizing parallelism, chiasm, inclusio, and other features shows that Scripture is not only inspired but also beautifully crafted. God chose to communicate His truth through artistry as well as content. For hermeneutics, this means:

• We must read attentively, not rushing past patterns.

• We must interpret passages in light of their literary design.

• We must allow form to shape our understanding of meaning.

Conclusion

Parallelism, chiasm, inclusio, repetition, and other literary features are more than stylistic flourishes. They are essential tools of communication, chosen by the biblical authors under the inspiration of the Spirit. This highlights the need for literary attentiveness. When we recognize these patterns, we discover theological depth, narrative beauty, and divine intention woven into the very fabric of Scripture.

References

Alter, R. (2011). The Art of Biblical Poetry. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Blomberg, C. L. (1997). Matthew (NAC, Vol. 22). Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman.

Fee, G. D., & Stuart, D. (2014). How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth (4th ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

Lund, N. W. (1942). Chiasmus in the New Testament: A Study in the Form and Function of Chiastic Structures. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

Watson, W. G. E. (1984). Classical Hebrew Poetry: A Guide to Its Techniques. Sheffield, UK: JSOT Press.

Wright, N. T. (2012). Scripture and the Authority of God. New York, NY: HarperOne.