American Christianity — Rise of American Evangelicalism, The Latter-Day Saint Movement, and Religious Diversity in the 19th Century

Introduction: A Distinctively American Christianity

The 19th century saw the rise of a uniquely American religious landscape. Freed from state churches, shaped by frontier expansion, and infused with revivalist energy, American Christianity developed in directions that distinguished it from European traditions. Evangelicalism became the dominant force, but it was accompanied by a proliferation of new movements—among them the Latter-Day Saints, the Adventists, and countless independent sects. These developments reflected both the vitality and fragmentation of faith in a society committed to freedom of conscience and democratic ideals.

This lesson explores the rise of American evangelicalism, the birth of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and the broader religious creativity of 19th-century America. It situates these movements within the cultural, political, and theological contexts of the time, highlighting their contributions, controversies, and enduring legacies.

1. The Rise of American Evangelicalism

Roots in the Second Great Awakening

Evangelicalism in America was forged in the fires of the Second Great Awakening (1790s–1840s). Revivalism emphasized personal conversion, emotional preaching, and activism. Evangelicals stressed four hallmarks (later identified by historian David Bebbington as the “evangelical quadrilateral”):

• Conversionism (the need for personal new birth),

• Biblicism (authority of Scripture),

• Activism (missionary and reform zeal),

• Crucicentrism (focus on Christ’s atoning death).

These traits shaped denominational growth and religious culture across the expanding nation.

Denominational Expansion

Methodists and Baptists surged ahead, using itinerant preachers and decentralized networks to reach frontier communities. By 1850, Methodists were the largest denomination in the United States. Baptists grew rapidly, particularly in the South, through local autonomy and adaptability. Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and Episcopalians remained influential, but evangelical fervor gave Methodists and Baptists the edge in democratized religion.

Social Reform

Evangelicals linked faith to reform. They founded schools, missionary societies, and benevolent associations. They campaigned against slavery, promoted temperance, and sought to Christianize society. In the North, evangelical abolitionists became powerful voices leading toward the Civil War. In the South, however, evangelicals defended slavery, demonstrating the adaptability—and contradictions—of American evangelicalism.

2. Evangelicalism and American Culture

Religion and Democracy

Evangelicalism thrived in the democratic environment of the new republic. Revival meetings treated all participants as spiritually equal, resonating with American ideals of liberty and equality. Evangelical churches often emphasized lay leadership, congregational autonomy, and voluntarism—mirroring the political ethos of the nation.

Gender and Participation

Women played vital roles in evangelical churches as organizers, teachers, and reformers. Though most denominations restricted ordination to men, women’s participation in prayer meetings, societies, and revivals gave them significant religious influence. The evangelical emphasis on family and morality reinforced traditional gender roles, but women used evangelical networks to enter public life.

Race and Slavery

Evangelicalism had a complex relationship with race. Revivalism attracted many African Americans, both enslaved and free, who found in evangelical churches a message of equality before God. Black Christians founded independent denominations such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church (1816) under Richard Allen. Yet white evangelicals in the South defended slavery, using biblical arguments. The division over slavery eventually split denominations such as the Baptists and Methodists into Northern and Southern branches.

3. The Latter-Day Saint Movement

Origins and Founding

The most distinctive new movement of 19th-century America was the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS), founded by Joseph Smith Jr. (1805–1844). Smith claimed to have received visions from God and translated the Book of Mormon (1830), which he presented as another testament of Jesus Christ, chronicling God’s dealings with ancient peoples in the Americas.

Growth and Persecution

The Latter-day Saints grew rapidly, attracting converts with their vision of restored Christianity, continuing revelation, and communal life. They faced intense persecution due to their distinct doctrines, political unity, and practices (including, later, polygamy). Driven from New York to Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois, the community suffered violence. Smith was killed in 1844.

Migration and Settlement

Under Brigham Young, the Latter-day Saints migrated west, settling in Utah in 1847. There they built a thriving society, practicing communal economics and polygamy. Their theocratic structures and clashes with federal authority made them controversial, but they endured and expanded.

Theology and Distinctives

The LDS movement introduced distinctive doctrines: continuing revelation through prophets, a literal restoration of priesthood authority, temple rituals, and a unique cosmology. While often marginalized in the 19th century, the Latter-day Saints grew into a major global church.

4. Other New Religious Movements

The Adventist Movement

In the 1830s and 1840s, William Miller predicted Christ’s imminent return. The “Great Disappointment” of 1844, when Christ did not appear, scattered followers, but out of this milieu emerged the Seventh-day Adventist Church, emphasizing Sabbath observance and eschatological hope. Leaders like Ellen G. White gave the movement prophetic authority and enduring vitality.

Restorationist and Primitivist Groups

Movements such as the Disciples of Christ (Stone-Campbell Movement) sought to restore New Testament Christianity, rejecting denominational creeds in favor of simple biblical faith. Their emphasis on unity and biblical primitivism reflected American democratic ideals.

Utopian and Communitarian Experiments

The 19th century abounded in religious utopias: the Shakers, with celibate communal life; the Oneida Community, practicing “complex marriage”; and others experimenting with communal economics and radical theology. These groups embodied the religious creativity of the era.

5. Evangelical Awakenings in the Mid- and Late 19th Century

Civil War and Evangelical Faith

The Civil War tested American Christianity. Evangelicals in the North and South interpreted the conflict in theological terms. The war accelerated denominational splits and forced churches to grapple with slavery, freedom, and national destiny.

Postwar Evangelicalism

After the war, evangelical revivalism continued. Leaders like Dwight L. Moody led massive crusades in the U.S. and abroad, emphasizing personal conversion and simple gospel preaching. Evangelicalism adapted to urban life, founding missions, schools, and social services to address poverty and immigration.

6. American Christianity and the Global Missionary Movement

Revivalist and evangelical zeal fueled the missionary explosion of the 19th century. American societies sent missionaries to Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. The missionary movement intertwined with Western imperialism, but it also empowered indigenous Christianities that reshaped global Christianity in the 20th century.

7. Evangelicalism and Social Reform

Evangelicals led or supported many reform movements:

• Abolition of slavery: Evangelicals were prominent in the fight against slavery, though divided by region.

• Temperance: Revivals fueled campaigns against alcohol.

• Women’s rights: Some evangelical women connected faith with suffrage and social activism.

• Education: Evangelicals established colleges, Sunday schools, and seminaries.

Evangelical activism shaped American culture, giving religion a public voice in civic life.

8. The Fragmentation and Diversity of American Religion

The 19th century produced a dizzying array of sects, denominations, and movements. From mainstream evangelicalism to Mormonism, Adventism, and utopian experiments, the American religious marketplace reflected the nation’s values of freedom, individualism, and innovation. This pluralism, though sometimes chaotic, became a defining feature of American Christianity.

Conclusion

The 19th century witnessed the rise of evangelicalism as America’s dominant religious culture, while also giving birth to entirely new religious traditions. The Latter-day Saints, Adventists, and restorationist movements reflected the creativity and volatility of American religious life. Evangelicalism shaped politics, reform, and missions, while new groups expanded the boundaries of Christian identity. By 1900, America was home to one of the most diverse and dynamic Christian landscapes in history, setting the stage for the global influence of American Christianity in the 20th century.

Suggested Assignments

1. Research Essay (6,000 words): Analyze the growth of Methodists and Baptists in 19th-century America. What factors made them successful?

2. Comparative Study (5,000 words): Compare the Latter-day Saint movement with the Adventist movement in their approaches to prophecy and restoration.

3. Case Study (4,500 words): Examine the role of women in 19th-century American evangelicalism. How did revivalism empower or restrict them?

4. Theological Reflection (3,500 words): Reflect on the evangelical emphasis on conversion. How did it shape American democracy and reform movements?

5. Creative Assignment: Write a fictional letter from an 1850s Mormon pioneer describing the migration west to Utah.

References

Bebbington, D. W. (1989). Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s. Routledge.
Bushman, R. L. (2005). Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling. Knopf.
Hatch, N. O. (1989). The Democratization of American Christianity. Yale University Press.
Marsden, G. M. (2006). Fundamentalism and American Culture. Oxford University Press.
Noll, M. A. (1992). A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada. Eerdmans.
Shipps, J. (1985). Mormonism: The Story of a New Religious Tradition. University of Illinois Press.
Stout, H. S. (1991). The Divine Dramatist: George Whitefield and the Rise of Modern Evangelicalism. Eerdmans.