Scholastic Theology (Anselm, Aquinas)

Introduction

The period from the 11th to the 13th centuries marked a turning point in Christian intellectual history. As Europe stabilized after centuries of political fragmentation and as cathedral schools and universities emerged, theology assumed a new form—scholasticism. This movement sought to reconcile faith and reason, to clarify doctrine using philosophical tools, and to produce a systematic, rational account of the Christian faith.

Two towering figures stand at the center of scholastic theology: Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274). Anselm, often called the “Father of Scholasticism,” pioneered the method of fides quaerens intellectum—faith seeking understanding. Aquinas, two centuries later, brought scholastic theology to its zenith, synthesizing Aristotelian philosophy with Christian doctrine in a way that would dominate Western theology for centuries.

This lesson explores the origins and development of scholastic theology, examines the thought of Anselm and Aquinas in detail, situates them within broader cultural and intellectual currents, and reflects on their enduring influence.

1. The Rise of Scholasticism

The Context of Cathedral Schools and Universities

The seeds of scholastic theology were planted in the cathedral schools of the 11th century. Centers like Chartres, Laon, and Paris cultivated an environment where theology was studied not merely as spiritual devotion but as an intellectual discipline. By the 12th century, the emergence of universities at Paris, Bologna, and Oxford institutionalized this intellectual culture.

The scholastic method relied on:

• Lectio: authoritative reading of Scripture and the Fathers.

• Quaestio: posing questions and objections to clarify meaning.

• Disputatio: structured debate, testing arguments from multiple sides.

This dialectical approach sought to harmonize apparent contradictions, whether in Scripture, tradition, or philosophy.

The Influence of Philosophy

Early scholasticism drew heavily on Augustine and Neoplatonism. By the 12th century, however, translations of Aristotle’s works—often through Arabic intermediaries—transformed the intellectual landscape. Scholastics increasingly used Aristotelian logic, categories, and metaphysics to articulate theology.

2. Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109)

Life and Career

Born in Aosta (modern-day Italy), Anselm became a Benedictine monk at Bec in Normandy before rising to abbot and, eventually, archbishop of Canterbury. His life was marked by both intellectual activity and political conflict with English monarchs over church autonomy.

Method: Faith Seeking Understanding

Anselm’s motto, fides quaerens intellectum (“faith seeking understanding”), captures his conviction that faith is not opposed to reason but fulfilled through it. For Anselm, reason serves to deepen the believer’s grasp of divine truth already received by faith.

The Ontological Argument

In his Proslogion, Anselm presented the famous ontological argument for God’s existence: God is “that than which nothing greater can be conceived,” and such a being must exist not only in the mind but also in reality. While later philosophers would debate its validity, the argument exemplifies Anselm’s rational, philosophical approach to theology.

Cur Deus Homo: Why God Became Man

Anselm’s most influential work, Cur Deus Homo, articulated a theory of atonement known as the satisfaction theory. Rejecting ransom theories of the atonement, Anselm argued that sin is an offense against God’s honor requiring satisfaction. Humanity, unable to make adequate satisfaction, needed God himself to act. In the incarnation, Christ, both divine and human, offered perfect satisfaction through his obedient death.

This theory profoundly influenced Western soteriology, shaping medieval and Reformation understandings of salvation.

Legacy

Anselm’s synthesis of rational argument and theological conviction laid the groundwork for scholasticism. He demonstrated how logic could serve theology, setting a precedent for later thinkers.

3. Scholastic Method and Its Expansion

After Anselm, scholasticism flourished. Thinkers such as Peter Abelard (1079–1142) developed the method further, especially in his Sic et Non, which juxtaposed contradictory authorities to stimulate dialectical resolution. The scholastic method became increasingly sophisticated, preparing the ground for the monumental synthesis of Aquinas.

4. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274)

Life and Career

Born into a noble family in Italy, Thomas Aquinas joined the Dominican Order against his family’s wishes. He studied under Albert the Great and taught at the University of Paris. Despite his quiet demeanor, his intellectual output was enormous. He died at age 49, leaving behind a legacy that would shape Catholic theology for centuries.

The Summa Theologiae

Aquinas’s Summa Theologiae remains one of the greatest achievements of Christian thought. Intended as a manual for theology students, it systematically covers topics from God’s existence to creation, human nature, Christology, sacraments, and eschatology. Its structure—posing objections, stating counterarguments, presenting the solution, and addressing objections—embodies the scholastic method.

Aristotelian Synthesis

Aquinas’s genius lay in his use of Aristotle. While earlier theologians relied heavily on Augustine and Platonic thought, Aquinas integrated Aristotelian metaphysics and epistemology. Key elements include:

• Act and Potency: explaining change and being.

• Substance and Accidents: clarifying the Eucharist’s doctrine of transubstantiation.

• Four Causes: used to explain creation and final purpose.

By appropriating Aristotle, Aquinas gave theology a philosophical rigor that appealed to both reason and faith.

Five Ways: Proofs for God’s Existence

In the Summa, Aquinas offered five “ways” of demonstrating God’s existence, based on motion, causation, contingency, degrees of perfection, and final causality. These arguments exemplify his conviction that natural reason can lead to knowledge of God, though revelation remains necessary for fuller truths.

Natural Law

Aquinas developed a rich account of natural law, grounded in the idea that God’s eternal law is imprinted in creation and accessible to reason. Human law should reflect this higher order. Natural law theory profoundly shaped Christian ethics and continues to influence debates about morality, politics, and rights.

Theology of Grace and Sacraments

Aquinas offered nuanced treatments of grace, free will, and the sacraments. He emphasized cooperation between divine grace and human freedom, and his explanation of sacramental efficacy became standard in Catholic theology.

Mystical Dimension

Despite his rational rigor, Aquinas was also a mystic. Near the end of his life, after a vision during Mass, he declared his writings to be “like straw” compared to the reality of God. This balance of intellect and devotion epitomizes the scholastic spirit at its best.

5. Scholasticism in Context

Scholastic theology cannot be understood apart from its broader cultural setting.

• Universities: The rise of Paris, Oxford, and Bologna created a new intellectual class of clerics who debated theology systematically.

• Translation Movement: Arabic and Jewish philosophers (Averroes, Avicenna, Maimonides) transmitted Aristotle and influenced scholastic thought.

• Papal Authority: Scholastic theology supported and was supported by the centralized papacy, providing intellectual defenses for church teaching.

• Critics: Mystics like Bernard of Clairvaux and later figures like William of Ockham criticized scholastic overconfidence in reason, foreshadowing later debates.

6. The Enduring Legacy

Scholasticism left a lasting imprint on Christian theology. Anselm’s satisfaction theory shaped Western soteriology; Aquinas’s synthesis became official Catholic teaching, especially after the Council of Trent. Even the Protestant Reformers, while rejecting some scholastic conclusions, inherited its methods and categories.

Beyond theology, scholasticism influenced law, politics, and philosophy. Concepts of natural law and rights trace back to scholastic roots. The scholastic insistence on reason’s harmony with faith continues to inspire theological reflection today.

Conclusion

Anselm and Aquinas represent the bookends of the scholastic movement’s formative period. Anselm launched the project of rational theology with his ontological argument and satisfaction theory; Aquinas completed its grand synthesis by marrying Aristotle to Christian doctrine. Together, they shaped the intellectual identity of Western Christianity in ways still felt today.

The scholastic method, with its careful dialectic, systematic organization, and balance of faith and reason, remains a model for theological inquiry. While later critics would challenge its assumptions, its legacy endures as a testimony to the medieval church’s intellectual vigor.

Suggested Assignments

1. Research Essay (5,000 words): Analyze Anselm’s satisfaction theory of atonement in Cur Deus Homo. How does it differ from earlier ransom theories?

2. Comparative Study (4,500 words): Compare Anselm’s ontological argument and Aquinas’s Five Ways. How do they illustrate different approaches to proving God’s existence?

3. Case Study (3,500 words): Examine Aquinas’s doctrine of natural law. How did it shape medieval and modern moral thought?

4. Theological Reflection (3,000 words): Reflect on the relationship between faith and reason in scholastic theology. What lessons does it offer for contemporary theology?

5. Creative Assignment: Write a fictional dialogue between Anselm and Aquinas on the nature of God’s existence, followed by a commentary situating their views historically.

References

Anselm of Canterbury. (1998). Anselm of Canterbury: The major works (B. Davies & G. R. Evans, Trans.). Oxford University Press.
Aquinas, T. (1981). Summa Theologica (Fathers of the English Dominican Province, Trans.). Christian Classics.
Davies, B. (1992). The thought of Thomas Aquinas. Clarendon Press.
Evans, G. R. (2002). Anselm. Continuum.
Gilson, E. (1956). The Christian philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas. Random House.
Kretzmann, N., Kenny, A., & Pinborg, J. (1982). The Cambridge history of later medieval philosophy. Cambridge University Press.
Leff, G. (1968). Medieval thought: St. Augustine to Ockham. Penguin.
Southern, R. W. (1990). Saint Anselm: A portrait in a landscape. Cambridge University Press.